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EO-based crop yield estimation integrates vegetation indices (e.g., NDVI, EVI, fAPAR), meteorological data, and phenological modeling to simulate or correlate crop development with expected harvest output. Time-series optical imagery from satellites like Sentinel-2, Landsat-8, or MODIS is used to track growth patterns throughout the season. Models may be empirical (using historical EO-yield relati...

Crop ET estimation with EO typically involves modeling surface energy balance or water balance using multispectral optical imagery, meteorological inputs, and land surface characteristics. Models such as SEBAL, METRIC, or SEN-ET integrate data from Sentinel-2 or Landsat (for surface reflectance and vegetation indices) with meteorological parameters (e.g., solar radiation, air temperature) to compu...

Freshwater biodiversity is essential to preserve the health and functioning of ecosystems which in turn provide a range of ecosystem services, including water purification, flood regulation, and nutrient cycling. Freshwater biodiversity supports a range of human activities such as fishing, agriculture, and recreation, and provides cultural and aesthetic value. Remote sensing plays an important rol...

A sand dam is a structure built above the ground and integrated into the riverbed of a sand river, where sand accumulates upstream from the dam to enhance groundwater storage capacity. Similarly, a subsurface dam obstructs the flow of groundwater in an aquifer to facilitate water storage below ground level. Sand dams and underground dams are effective methods for storing water underground. The ...